0000-0003-0453-4053 
profesorjorge19@gmail.com
Mendive. Journal on Education, April-June 2025; 23(2), e4059
Translated from the original in Spanish
Original article
Primary education for youth and adults in rural areas in the province of Salta, Argentina
Educación primaria para jóvenes y adultos en contextos rurales en la provincia de Salta, Argentina
Educação primária para jovens e adultos em contextos rurais na província de Salta, Argentina
Marcelo Jorge Navarro1 0000-0003-0453-4053 profesorjorge19@gmail.com
1 National University of Salta. Argentina.
Received: 14/12/2024
Accepted: 6/03/2025
ABSTRACT
Youth and adult education in Argentina was marked by debates that intensified from the 1950s to the late 1970s. It was in the 1980s that programs seeking to improve education in rural areas began to be implemented. However, the lack of specific didactic training for teachers and the perception of education as a compensation for students' educational deficiencies hindered progress. This research paper aims to analyze the process of return to democracy in Argentina during the 1980s, focusing on teacher training policies linked to youth and adult education in the province of Salta, particularly in rural contexts. To this end, a qualitative approach is adopted that includes the analysis of primary and secondary sources, as well as the triangulation of data from documents from the Ministry of Education and other relevant institutions. The results obtained indicate that, despite the implementation of programs such as the Rural Education Expansion and Improvement Program (EMER) and the Agricultural Technical Education Expansion and Improvement Program (EMETA), teacher training in rural settings has faced significant challenges, such as a lack of specific training and a compensatory approach to education. These limitations have limited the effectiveness of educational policies, which have failed to adequately meet the needs of the adult population, especially women. In conclusion, the study underscores the importance of developing inclusive educational policies that consider the specificities of rural settings and the diversity of adult learners.
Keywords: education; training; rural.
RESUMEN
La educación de jóvenes y adultos en Argentina estuvo marcada por debates que se intensificaron desde la década de 1950 hasta finales de los años 70. Fue en los años 80 cuando comenzaron a implementarse programas que buscaban mejorar la educación en áreas rurales. No obstante, la falta de formación didáctica específica para los docentes y la percepción de la educación como una compensación a las carencias educativas de los alumnos dificultaron el progreso. El presente trabajo de investigación tiene como objetivo analizar el proceso de retorno a la democracia en Argentina durante la década de 1980, centrando su atención en las políticas de formación docente vinculadas a la educación de jóvenes y adultos en la provincia de Salta, particularmente en contextos rurales. Para ello, se adopta un enfoque cualitativo que incluye el análisis de fuentes primarias y secundarias, así como la triangulación de datos provenientes de documentos del Ministerio de Educación y otras instituciones pertinentes. Los resultados obtenidos indican que, pese a la implementación de programas como programa de Expansión y Mejoramiento de la Educación Rural (EMER) y el programa de Expansión y Mejoramiento de la Educación Técnica Agropecuaria (EMETA), la formación docente en entornos rurales ha enfrentado desafíos significativos, tales como la falta de capacitación específica y una concepción compensatoria de la educación. Estas limitaciones han restringido la efectividad de las políticas educativas, las cuales no han logrado satisfacer adecuadamente las necesidades de la población adulta, especialmente de las mujeres. En conclusión, el estudio subraya la importancia de desarrollar políticas educativas inclusivas que consideren las particularidades de los contextos rurales y la diversidad de los estudiantes adultos.
Palabras clave: educación; formación; rural.
RESUMO
A educação de jovens e adultos na Argentina foi marcada por debates que se intensificaram desde a década de 1950 até o final dos anos 70. Foi na década de 80 que começaram a ser implementados programas que buscavam melhorar a educação nas áreas rurais. No entanto, a falta de formação didática específica para os professores e a percepção da educação como uma compensação pelas deficiências educacionais dos alunos dificultaram o progresso. O presente trabalho de pesquisa tem como objetivo analisar o processo de retorno à democracia na Argentina durante a década de 1980, concentrando sua atenção nas políticas de formação de professores relacionadas à educação de jovens e adultos na província de Salta, particularmente em contextos rurais. Para isso, adota-se uma abordagem qualitativa que inclui a análise de fontes primárias e secundárias, bem como a triangulação de dados provenientes de documentos do Ministério da Educação e outras instituições pertinentes. Os resultados obtidos indicam que, apesar da implementação de programas como o Programa de Expansão e Melhoria da Educação Rural (EMER) e o Programa de Expansão e Melhoria da Educação Técnica Agrícola (EMETA), a formação de professores em ambientes rurais enfrentou desafios significativos, tais como a falta de capacitação específica e uma concepção compensatória da educação. Essas limitações restringiram a eficácia das políticas educativas, que não conseguiram satisfazer adequadamente as necessidades da população adulta, especialmente das mulheres. Em conclusão, o estudo ressalta a importância de desenvolver políticas educativas inclusivas que levem em consideração as particularidades dos contextos rurais e a diversidade dos estudantes adultos.
Palavras-chave: educação; formação; rural.
INTRODUCTION
At the beginning of the 1980s, Argentina went through a period of transition between military governments and the return to democracy. The deep economic crisis, the social breakdown caused by state terrorism, and uncertainty about the country's future marked these early years.
Education was also part of this transition from the strongly conservative models in place during the dictatorship to more flexible pedagogical models with new proposals. It should be recalled that during the military dictatorship, an educational policy with a markedly authoritarian and hierarchical bent was implemented, where the goal of education was to transmit traditional values based on the idea of "national being," with a strong moral sense of what "should be". Even in this context, in the final years of military rule, emphasis was placed on modernizing the school system, with a strong agenda of teacher training and the acquisition of equipment.
With the return of democracy, many proposals (not always innovative) resurfaced, highlighting the need for profound changes in the education system, which was considered obsolete and outdated by the changing times. In this context, and throughout the decade, several proposals related to rural education were consolidated (some already implemented since the late 1970s) or emerged as a fundamental need to improve and promote previously neglected forms of formal education.
In the case of rural education, two defining events would mark the decade, particularly in the province of Salta. First, the implementation of the Rural Education Expansion and Improvement Program (EMER) and its eponymous Agricultural Technical Education Expansion and Improvement Program (EMETA).
The EMER program, approved by Decree No. 1163 of March 24, 1979, was implemented at the end of the last dictatorship and continued until the early 1990s. It was intended for rural primary schools, which in the case of the province included the departments of Anta, General San Martín, Rosario de la Frontera, and Orán; departments with the largest concentration of rural population in the province. Meanwhile, the EMETA program, like the EMER, was national in scope and financed 50% by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and the other 50% by the Ministry of Education of Argentina. EMETA continued the proposals of the EMER, but at the secondary level, and followed IDB policy in coordination with the educational organizations of the 22 Argentine provinces.
On the other hand, laws recognizing the rights of indigenous peoples were enacted, which launched the Bilingual Intercultural Education projects in the educational field, which were fully consolidated in the mid-1990s, in addition to structuring and expanding the development of Youth and Adult Education in the province.
Methodologically, due to the complexity of the educational phenomenon in rural contexts, a qualitative methodological approach was chosen that incorporates triangulation as its main tool. This method allowed for the integration of diverse sources of information, including official documents from the Ministry of Education and previous academic studies, which enriched the analysis and interpretation of the results.
By considering the limitations and opportunities of teacher training policies, this study aims to offer insights more closely aligned with the specific realities of the adult population in rural contexts. In this way, the following article seeks not only to understand the situation in historical terms but also to promote a more inclusive and effective approach to youth and adult education today.
In this sense, the following article aims to analyze the process of returning to democracy in Argentina during the 1980s, focusing on teacher training policies linked to youth and adult education in the province of Salta, particularly in rural areas.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The research work that frames this article is qualitative in nature and sought to understand the process of returning to democracy in Argentina during the 1980s, with a particular emphasis on teacher training policies for youth and adult education in the province of Salta. To achieve a complete understanding of this reality, triangulation was chosen as the primary method of data collection and analysis. This approach made it possible to integrate different sources of information and perspectives, thus enhancing the analysis and interpretation of the results.
Triangulation was based on the idea that combining multiple methods and sources can provide a more complete and accurate view of a phenomenon (Marradi et al., 2018). In this case, primary and secondary sources were used, including official documents from the Ministry of Education, previous research, and relevant academic literature, obtained from repositories such as the CEDOC Database of the Ministry of Education, the National Teachers' Library, the Library of the National Congress, the libraries of the National Universities of Salta and Quilmes, the Public Library of Salta, CIPPEC, DINIECE, and the Secretariat of Educational Planning of Salta, Argentina. This diversity of sources allowed the information to be contrasted and validated, which increased the reliability and validity of the findings.
One of the main contributions of triangulation was the ability to address the complexity of the educational phenomenon in rural contexts. Youth and adult education in Salta has historically been marginalized, and implemented educational policies have faced multiple challenges (Romero, 2020). By integrating different perspectives, triangulation allowed us to identify not only the limitations of existing policies but also opportunities for improvement. For example, analyzing documents from the Ministry of Education, along with academic studies, revealed discrepancies between policy intentions and classroom reality, providing a richer context for interpreting data.
Furthermore, triangulation facilitated the identification of patterns and trends that might not be evident using a single method (Marradi et al., 2018). By combining analysis of official ministerial documents with institutional documents and accounts, a better analytical parameter could be obtained on how teacher training policies have been received and applied in practice. This is especially relevant in rural contexts, where educational realities can differ significantly from urban ones.
Another important aspect was the improvement in the credibility of the results. Triangulation helped mitigate biases that can arise from using a single source. By comparing information obtained from different sources (Forni & Grande, 2020), the consistency of the findings could be validated and a more robust interpretation offered. This is crucial in the field of social research, where realities are complex and multifaceted.
Triangulation also contributed to critical reflection on the research process (Forni & Grande, 2020). By engaging multiple sources and methods, researchers are challenged to question their own assumptions and consider different perspectives. This enriches the analysis and encourages a more inclusive and participatory approach to educational research.
In short, triangulation as a method of data collection and analysis has added significance to research on youth and adult education in rural contexts by integrating diverse sources and perspectives, achieving a deeper and more nuanced understanding of the educational phenomenon, allowing for a more effective and contextualized analysis.
Within this research framework, this paper focuses on analyzing the return to democracy in Argentina in the 1980s, focusing on teacher training policies for youth and adult education in rural areas of the province of Salta, Argentina.
RESULTS
Political and educational situation in Salta in the 1980s
The 1980s marked a profound institutional shift in Argentina. The final years of the military dictatorship were marked by a severe economic recession, high unemployment, hyperinflation, a loss of monetary value, and strong criticism from various sectors of society, particularly those linked to human rights.
Following Argentina's defeat in the Falkland Islands War, the military dictatorship paved the way for its withdrawal from power, paving the way for democratic elections in Argentina.
Thus, in the 1983 presidential elections, the candidate of the Radical Civic Union, Dr. Raúl Alfonsín, was elected. A progressive, he was responsible for restoring civil and political institutions and attempting to change the economic course through a series of measures included in the Austral Plan.
The monetary transformation, the trial of the military juntas, the laws of due obedience and final point, the La Tablada and Monte Caseros uprisings, the deepening economic crisis, and devaluation were central characteristics of this historical period.
Parallel to the return of democracy, gubernatorial elections were held in the province of Salta. In the 1983 elections, Roberto Romero, the Justicialist Party candidate, was elected governor. He represented a coalition of various political forces. Although his speech proposed transforming the province's infrastructure, promoting economic growth, and providing social assistance with a strong presence of the state, the foundations and principles remained strongly influenced by the conservative sectors of the Salta oligarchy.
Following Roberto Romero's departure in 1987, accountant Hernán Cornejo took over as governor of Salta, facing a period of deep economic recession and popular discontent. The province's financial problems, compounded by the social unrest and tense climate experienced in Argentina in the late 1980s, marked the governor's administration.
Within this context, education in the province had several nuances, where the policies linked to rural education, attention to diversity with bilingual education programs and the expansion of Higher Level offers stood out, mainly the opening of teacher training courses for the primary level (Chaile, 2007), and the development and extension of the structure designed for the education of young people and adults, mainly with the operation of the so-called Salteño Baccalaureates for Adults (BSPA).
It is worth noting that by 1980, according to the population census, Argentina had a population of 27,947.4 million (i.e., a population density of 11.7 inhabitants per km2); of that total, 17.2% of the Argentine population lived in rural areas. According to the census, the province of Salta had a population of 662,870, of which 186,717 were considered rural (28.16%). This means that the province substantially exceeded the national average in terms of rural population (National Population and Housing Census, Argentine Republic, 1980).
The beginning of the decade, during the military government and the beginning of the following government, was marked by a series of expropriations of land belonging to private owners and destined for rural schools in several departments of Salta. Thus, in May 1982, a hectare belonging to the Galván family in the department of Rivadavia Banda Sur was declared of public utility and subject to expropriation, destined for School No. 388 "Tres Horcones" (Provincial Law No. 5921. Promulgated on 04/28/82. BO No. 11.470, of 05/05/1982).
In November 1982, one hectare of land belonging to the Robles family was expropriated in the General San Martín Department for the construction of school No. 260 in the "El Bobadal" area (Provincial Law No. 6002). This law was passed and promulgated on November 16, 1982, and published in the Official Gazette of Salta No. 11,606, dated November 23, 1982.
In October 1983, the expropriation of one hectare belonging to Lina Mercedes, Pablo Enrique and Telesforo Rojas in the department of Anta for School No. 377 "Las Tortugas" was declared (Provincial Law No. 6177, promulgated on 10/20/83. Official Gazette No. 11,834, October 26, 1983); and an area of 8,198.42 m2 in the Department of Santa Victoria Oeste, belonging to the Cabezas family, destined for School No. 799, in the "El Condado" area (Provincial Law No. 6180, promulgated on 10/20/83. Official Gazette No. 11,834, October 26, 1983).
One hectare was expropriated from the Arias family in the Department of La Caldera for school No. 660, "Mojotoro" Farm (Provincial Law No. 6181, enacted on 10/20/83. Official Gazette No. 11,834, October 26, 1983); an area of 3,586.61 m2 from the Patrón Uriburu family in the Department of Chicoana for the purpose of school No. 217 "Santa Ana" (Provincial Law No. 6182, enacted on 10/20/83.
Official Gazette No. 11,834, dated October 26, 1983); one hectare belonging to the Salinas family in the department of Rosario de la Frontera for School No. 718 of the "La Palata" Farm (Provincial Law No. 6183, enacted on 10/20/83. Official Gazette No. 11,834, dated October 26, 1983); one hectare belonging to the Barroso, Cuellar and other families in the Department of Metan destined for School No. 378 "Atimisqui" (Provincial Law No. 6184. Official Gazette No. 11,834, dated October 26, 1983). One hectare in the Iruya department, belonging to the Gorena family, destined for School No. 259 (Provincial Law No. 6185. Official Gazette No. 11,834, of October 26, 1983).
All of these expropriations were part of the restructuring of the provincial education system and the need to expand the educational offering in rural areas that were historically isolated and lacked educational institutions. Most of these expropriations involved the construction of new buildings (establishment of schools).
Youth and adult education
The education of young people and adults has a long history in the country, dating back to the beginning of the education system with Education Law 1420 of 1884. While during the first half of the 20th century, efforts were made to implement literacy campaigns for adults in different Argentine provinces, it was not until the 1970s and 1980s that a policy was developed specifically focused on this population segment that, for a variety of reasons, had not attended elementary school or had to interrupt their studies.
From the 1950s to the late 1970s, debates deepened and expanded around the underlying concepts of youth and adult education, as well as the possibilities for implementing targeted policies across regions.
By the mid-1970s, the emergence of critical theories in education, primarily Freudian theories, would permeate various academic and educational circles, and new concepts and approaches to the education of young people and adults would emerge.
In this regard, during Juan Domingo Perón's third presidency, the Directorate of Adult Education was created in 1973 (Decree 4626/73). This became an educational policy, granting it autonomy and separating it from primary schools.
Since its creation, the Directorate of Adult Education has updated the Secondary Education Centers (CENS) in partnership with unions and in line with the Literacy Campaign (CREAR).
With the fall of Peronism, the civic-military dictatorship (1976-83), the management intervened, eliminating many of its functions and autonomy of execution, and teachers were dismissed.
In 1981, still during the dictatorship, by Law No. 5827 (this law was sanctioned and promulgated on September 11, 1981, published in the Official Gazette of Salta No. 11,316, of September 22, 1981) the evening primary schools for adults, state and private prison schools, were transferred to the General Directorate of Education of the Province (DGEP), with the exception of daytime and evening schools for minors and adults. In this way, the DGEP concentrated everything related to primary education, including adult literacy.
It was only with the return of democracy that youth and adult education returned to the educational agenda with several proposals, among which the development of policies specifically aimed at this area in the province of Salta stood out.
In Argentina, after more than seven years of state terrorism, elections were held on October 30, 1983. This event occurred in the context of a severe economic crisis, the resurgence of popular struggle, and the political and military defeat suffered in the Falklands War. The Radical Civic Union (UCR) obtained 51.9% of the votes. On December 10 of that same year, Dr. Raúl Alfonsín assumed the presidency, beginning a new era in the nation's history (Wanschelbaum, 2013).
In general, during this period, the major structuring was focused on the creation of the Adult Baccalaureate Programs (BSPA) and the growing supply of Higher Education teaching staff, many of them designed with a rural or regional focus throughout the province, under Romero's administration.
During the period from 1985 to 1988, the three-year Campaign for adults completing primary school was carried out (Provincial Law No. 6280. Published in the Official Gazette No. 12,097, of November 14, 1984) for inhabitants of the province, over 18 years of age, who had not started or completed primary schooling, with a duration of 3 years and organized in cycles.
Likewise, from 1984 to 1989, a series of regulations and provisions focused on teacher training in the province for rural areas were issued, among which the following stood out:
The centrality of these policies was based on the high demand for primary school teachers in the departments of the province's interior, primarily in rural areas. This policy also supported the work of developing and expanding the supply of rural schools, sustained since the implementation of the Program for Expansion and Improvement of Rural Education (EMER), although, as we will see later, it was not sustained over time and many of these institutes disappeared or lost their specialty. It is worth noting that the EMER program originated from the identification and analysis of various socio-educational problems considered priorities in rural areas, such as: high grade repetition rates, high dropout rates, the distance between schools and urban areas, which makes it difficult to carry out teacher training activities, inadequate structural conditions of buildings and a lack of equipment, in addition to the poor adaptation of curricular programs to the rural environment.
In this context, the development of teacher training policies designed for the education of young people and adults was scarce or nonexistent in many cases, or a school-based approach was adopted to compensate for students' educational needs and deficiencies.
It's worth noting that the education program for young people and adults was designed (and still is) to cover both primary and secondary schooling, but with nuances that differentiated it. Mainly in the characteristics of the students who attended each program.
DISCUSSION
In the 20th century, policies generally failed to recognize the specificity and complexity of adult education. Pedagogically, it was equated with the levels of the common education system for children and adolescents (Maselli et al., 2016).
Specifically, the development of youth and adult education in the province of Salta, Argentina, has been a process marked by the political and social transition (Romero, 2020) that the country has experienced since the 1980s. This period, characterized by the return to democracy, brought with it a series of challenges and opportunities in the educational field, especially in rural areas where the need for training was pressing. The implementation of educational policies, such as the EMER and EMETA programs, sought to address the demands of a population that, for various reasons, had been excluded from the formal education system.
One of the most significant aspects of this process was the creation of Salta High Schools for Adults, which offered a viable alternative for those wishing to complete their secondary education. However, despite these advances, there was a lack of specific curricular policies that effectively integrated teacher training with the needs of adult students. This created a gap in the preparation of educators, who faced the challenge of teaching a diverse student body with different motivations and life contexts.
Teacher training became a central pillar for the development of youth and adult education, but limitations in training and specific teaching methods for this population group were significant obstacles. Despite efforts, the lack of a coordinated approach and integrated policies hampered the creation of an education system that truly responded to the needs of adults in rural contexts.
Furthermore, the country's political and economic situation during this decade influenced the perception and value placed on education. The economic crisis and the legacy of state terrorism generated a climate of uncertainty that affected not only the general population but also educational institutions. However, education emerged as a means for social reconstruction and inclusion, allowing many adults to access knowledge and skills that facilitated their integration into society.
In summary, it can be said that youth and adult education in Salta during the 1980s was a complex process that reflected the tensions and transformations of a country in search of its democratic identity. Despite the progress made, challenges remain that require continued attention, especially in teacher training and the creation of educational policies that respond to the realities of the adult population. The history of education in this context is a testament to the transformative power of education and its capacity to contribute to social equity.
The development and expansion of youth and adult education in the 1980s, and the creation of teacher training institutes in various parts of the province, did not entail the development of specific curricular policies that would support a coordinated and integrated approach between the two.
In this sense, it is clear that the main challenges facing youth and adult education in Salta were linked to the lack of specific educational policies addressing the needs of this population segment, especially in rural areas. At the same time, we can point to the limited or inadequate teacher training, which directly resulted in educators lacking specific didactic training to work with youth and adults, which limited the effectiveness of teaching.
Added to this are the unfavorable socioeconomic conditions and lack of access to educational resources, which hampered the inclusion and educational advancement of adult students. While teacher training policies were strongly focused on developing primary school teachers (Chaile, 2004), their curricular structures lacked specific didactic training for classroom work through pedagogical tools tailored to the characteristics of students attending rural schools.
It was in the mid-1990s, with the so-called educational transformation, that new attempts were made to introduce curricular changes to teacher training, which would consider the need for specific and critical visions of youth and adult education, although without much success.
In conclusion, it can be noted first that, despite the State's efforts to implement inclusive education policies, rural contexts in Argentina have historically been marginalized. This has resulted in inadequate attention to the specific needs of the adult population, limiting their access to quality education.
Furthermore, teacher training policies during the study period have lacked a comprehensive approach that considers the specificities of rural contexts. These policies have often been designed without considering the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of adult learners, leading to poor implementation. Research has shown that, although programs such as EMER and EMETA have been introduced for primary and secondary education, respectively, they have not effectively addressed the barriers faced by young people and adults in their educational process. The lack of specific training for teachers working in these contexts has been a determining factor in the ineffectiveness of these policies.
In general, educational policies for youth and adult education have been developed within the framework of the so-called "compensatory paradigm", according to various authors (Brusilovsky & Cabrera, 2005). These school-based programs have historically focused on literacy and catching up with learning disabilities, and are often delivered in inadequate facilities, with improvised staff and limited financial resources. As a result, their coverage has been low compared to the broad potential demand they once had and still have today.
Furthermore, it has been observed that the compensatory approach to education policies, which offers opportunities to those who have been excluded, has not transformed the educational reality in Salta. Research has revealed that many adults seeking to complete their primary or secondary education face academic, social, and economic challenges that limit their ability to fully participate in the education system. This highlights the need for a more holistic approach that considers both the academic background and the life context of students.
As a reflection, it is worth highlighting the importance of women's inclusion in education. Research has highlighted that adult women, often responsible for household chores and family care, face additional barriers that hinder their access to education. This underscores the need for policies that promote youth and adult education and address gender inequalities in education. In this regard, further research is needed to address this issue specifically.
Finally, it can be concluded that it is essential to reformulate teacher training policies to make them more relevant and effective in rural contexts, even today. This involves not only training teachers in appropriate methodologies but also creating a regulatory framework that recognizes and values the diversity of adult learners.
Institutional structure and organizational forms significantly determine various aspects of school life, including the type of relationship teachers maintain with colleagues, supervisors, students, and parents (Cragnolino & Lorenzatti, 2002). It is therefore essential that future teachers identify this reality and recognize the characteristics and dynamics of institutional functioning, which in rural schools -as in urban schools, although perhaps more so- involves much more than the classroom.
In this context, there is a need to reflect on teacher training for rural areas, emphasizing the importance of creating favorable conditions for knowledge acquisition. This knowledge should enable future teachers to creatively and critically address the specific characteristics of students and their rural environment (Lorenzatti et al., 2014).
To achieve inclusive, quality education for youth and adults in rural settings, a profound shift in educational policies is necessary. This shift must be based on a clear understanding of local realities and the participation of all stakeholders involved in the educational process. Only in this way will it be possible to advance toward an education that responds to the needs of the adult population and contributes to the social and economic development of the region.
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Conflict of interest
Authors declare no conflict of interests.
Authors' contribution
The authors participated in the design and writing of the article, in the search and analysis of the information contained in the consulted bibliography.
